The Ethereum Berlin upgrade marked a significant milestone in the evolution of the Ethereum network. Completed on April 15, 2025, at block height 12,244,000, this upgrade introduced critical improvements to enhance performance, security, and future scalability. Whether you're a casual user, developer, or node operator, understanding the implications of the Berlin upgrade is essential for navigating the evolving Ethereum ecosystem.
What Is the Berlin Upgrade?
The Berlin upgrade is a protocol-level enhancement to the Ethereum network. As part of Ethereum’s ongoing development roadmap, such upgrades require consensus among developers and node operators across various Ethereum clients—such as Geth, OpenEthereum, Besu, and Nethermind. Once agreed upon, these changes are implemented at a predetermined block height.
This upgrade followed previous network upgrades like Istanbul and Muir Glacier and was delayed from its original 2020 timeline due to concerns over client centralization—particularly the dominance of Geth. Before deployment on the mainnet, the upgrade was rigorously tested on Ropsten, Goerli, and Rinkeby testnets to ensure stability.
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Why "Berlin"? Understanding Ethereum’s Naming Convention
The name "Berlin" does not imply any geographical significance but follows a naming tradition adopted after the Istanbul upgrade. Ethereum development teams now name major upgrades after cities that have hosted Devcon (Ethereum Developer Conference), including London, Shanghai, and others. This approach adds a thematic consistency to Ethereum’s long-term upgrade path.
Key Changes Introduced in the Berlin Upgrade
The Berlin upgrade incorporated several Ethereum Improvement Proposals (EIPs) aimed at optimizing gas efficiency, improving EVM functionality, and strengthening resistance to denial-of-service (DoS) attacks. Although initially planned to include five EIPs, EIP-2315 was removed during the 107th core developers' meeting on March 5.
EIP-2565: Reducing ModExp Precompile Costs
EIP-2565 revises the gas pricing model introduced in EIP-198, which added a precompiled contract for modular exponentiation—an operation used in cryptographic computations. While essential for privacy-preserving technologies like zk-SNARKs, it previously carried a high gas cost. EIP-2565 reduces this cost to better align with other computational operations, making advanced cryptographic functions more affordable and accessible within smart contracts.
EIP-2929: Increasing Gas Costs for State Access Operations
To mitigate potential DoS attack vectors, EIP-2929 increases the gas cost for certain state-access operations—including SLOAD, *CALL, BALANCE, EXT*, and SELFDESTRUCT—by approximately threefold when accessed for the first time within a transaction. However, subsequent accesses to the same address or storage slot remain low-cost.
This change discourages attackers from exploiting cheap repeated state reads to overwhelm the network while supporting future stateless client architectures by limiting witness data size.
EIP-2930: Optional Access Lists
To counterbalance the increased costs from EIP-2929, EIP-2930 introduces optional access lists. These allow users to specify in advance which addresses and storage keys their transaction intends to access. By declaring this intent upfront, transactions can benefit from lower gas fees when interacting with those pre-listed components.
This feature improves predictability for complex contract interactions and supports smoother integration with layer-2 solutions and account abstraction efforts.
EIP-2718: Typed Transaction Envelope
EIP-2718 standardizes transaction formats by introducing a new typed transaction envelope. This enables backward-compatible support for multiple transaction types within the same network—a crucial foundation for upcoming innovations like EIP-1559 and account abstraction.
Previously, Ethereum only supported a single transaction format. With EIP-2718, future upgrades can introduce new transaction types without breaking existing infrastructure.
What Should Users Do?
For most end users and ETH holders, no action is required. Wallets and exchanges typically handle backend compatibility automatically. Unless your service provider issues specific instructions, your funds and transactions remain unaffected.
However, node operators and miners must upgrade their client software before the activation block to remain synchronized with the network. Nodes running outdated versions will be isolated on an incompatible chain, unable to send ETH or interact with updated smart contracts.
Supported client versions include:
- Geth v1.10.1
- OpenEthereum v3.2.0
- Nethermind v1.10.31
- Besu v21.1.2
- EthereumJS VM v5.2.0
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Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)
Q: Did the Berlin upgrade affect ETH’s price or supply?
A: No. The Berlin upgrade did not alter Ethereum’s monetary policy or total supply. It focused solely on technical improvements and did not introduce inflationary or deflationary mechanisms.
Q: How does EIP-2930 benefit developers?
A: Developers can design more efficient smart contracts by leveraging access lists to reduce gas costs during execution, especially in multi-contract workflows or cross-chain interactions.
Q: Was there a risk of a chain split during the upgrade?
A: The risk was minimal due to widespread coordination among client teams and exchanges. Most major infrastructure providers signaled readiness well in advance.
Q: Can old wallets still work after Berlin?
A: Yes. Standard wallet transactions are fully compatible. Only advanced use cases involving custom transaction types may require updates.
Q: How does Berlin prepare Ethereum for ETH2?
A: By improving gas efficiency and laying groundwork for future upgrades like account abstraction and sharding, Berlin strengthens Ethereum’s scalability foundation ahead of full ETH2 integration.
Q: Is the Berlin upgrade related to Ethereum 2.0?
A: Not directly. Berlin is a Layer 1 protocol update on the current proof-of-work chain. However, it supports long-term goals shared with ETH2, such as enhanced performance and reduced attack surfaces.
The Road Ahead: London, Shanghai, and The Merge
While Berlin focused on optimization, it sets the stage for more transformative upgrades:
- London Upgrade (Expected July 2025): Will deploy EIP-1559, introducing a base fee mechanism that burns part of transaction fees—potentially making ETH deflationary under certain conditions.
- Shanghai Upgrade (Expected October 2025): May either introduce additional feature enhancements or serve as the pivotal "Merge" event, combining Ethereum’s current execution layer with the ETH2 consensus layer (Beacon Chain), transitioning the network fully to proof-of-stake.
Developers are evaluating whether to prioritize The Merge over incremental feature rollouts, depending on testing progress and security validation.
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Core Keywords
ethereum berlin upgrade, EIP-2929, EIP-2930, EIP-2565, EIP-2718, ethereum network upgrade, gas efficiency, optional access lists
By integrating technical refinement with forward-looking design choices, the Berlin upgrade exemplifies Ethereum’s commitment to continuous improvement—balancing immediate usability with long-term vision. As the network evolves toward greater scalability and sustainability, staying informed ensures you’re prepared for what comes next.